بررسی ترجیح طعمه پشه Dicrodiplosis manihoti Harris (Dip.: Ceccidomyiidae) نسبت به مراحل مختلف رشدی شپشک آرد آلود پنبه Phenococcus solenopsis Tinsely (Hem.: Pseudococcidae)

نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 گروه گیاهپزشکی، دانشکده کشاورزی، دانشگاه علوم کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی خوزستان، ملاثانی، ایران

2 پژوهشکده خرما و میوه های گرمسیری، موسسه تحقیقات علوم باغبانی، اهواز، ایران.

چکیده

پشه شکارگر  Dicrodiplosis manihoti Harris یکی از شکارگرهای فعال شپشک آردآلود پنبه Phenococcus solenopsisTinsely می‌باشد که از مناطق مختلف استان خوزستان از روی درختچه‌های ختمی چینی آلوده جمع‌آوری و گزارش‌شده است. ازآنجایی‌که پرورش انبوه و استفاده از این شکارگر به‌منظور کنترل شپشک آردآلود پنبه مستلزم شناسایی بهترین مرحله زیستی طعمه برای تغذیه می‌باشد، در این پژوهش ترجیح شکارگری لاروهای سنین یک، دو و سه پشه D. manihoti با تغذیه از مراحل پوره سن یک، دو، سه و ماده بالغ شپشک آردآلود پنبه در دمای بهینه 32 درجه سلسیوس، رطوبت نسبی 65±10 درصد و دوره نوری 14:10 ساعت (تاریکی: روشنایی) بررسی شد و داده‏های حاصل با استفاده از شاخص منلی مورد تجزیه‌وتحلیل قرار گرفت. مقایسه میانگین شاخص منلی نشان داد که لارو سن یک پشه D. manihoti ماده‌های بالغ شپشک را به‌طور معناداری به سایر مراحل رشدی ترجیح داد و کمترین مصرف این مرحله رشدی از پوره سن سه بدون اختلاف معنادار با پوره سن یک و دو شپشک بود. این در حالی است که لاروهای سن دو و سه شکارگر پوره سن یک شپشک را به‌طور معناداری به سایر مراحل رشدی ترجیح داده و کمترین میزان مصرف این مراحل رشدی به‌طور معناداری از ماده بالغ شپشک بود. تغذیه از پوره سن یک آفت به‌عنوان مرحله رشدی فعال و عامل اصلی انتقال شپشک روی میزبان‌ها و گیاهان دیگر نشان‌دهنده اهمیت این شکارگر در مهار جمعیت آفت و نقش کنترلی آن می‌باشد.

کلیدواژه‌ها

موضوعات


Extended Abstract

Introduction

The cotton mealybug, Phenococcus solenopsis Tinsely, is one of the destructive plant pests that is native to America and has become an important and dangerous pest in Asia in the 21st century (Wang et al., 2012; Fand et al., 2010; Hodgson et al., 2008). This polyphagous pest has a wide host range and has been collected from 219 species belonging to 159 genera from 70 families of plants including trees, shrubs, agricultural and non-agricultural plants in Iran (Mossadegh et al., 2015). Studies carried out on the natural enemies of mealybugs in Iran led to the identification of a predatory species Dicrodiplosis manihoti Harris (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in the southwestern regions of Iran (Bushi, 2016; Mossadeqh et al., 2015; Gheibi et al., 2015). Preliminary field and laboratory observations have shown that D. manihoti can probably have a high efficiency in controlling the cotton mealybug (Zilaei et al., 2022). The present study investigated the preference of different larval instars of this important predator on different developmental stages of cotton mealybug P. solenopsis.

 

Material and Methods

Samples of the cotton mealybug P. solenopsis were collected as pray from the Chinese hibiscus located in the campus of the University of Agricultural Science and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan and transferred to the laboratory and after the emergence of first instar nymphs they were transferred to the young branches of Chinese hibiscus in rearing containers. In order to create the initial population of D. manihoti, the infected branches contained mosquito larvae were placed in ventilated containers and after the emergence of adults, they were placed in ventilated containers with dimensions of 4×7×9 cm. containing cotton mealybugs. The colony was kept in an incubator at the temperature of 27 ± 1°C, relative humidity of 65 ± 10% and a photoperiod of 10:14 hours (darkness: lightness). Since a cohort of individuals was needed to experiment, a number of adult male and female mosquitoes were released on the colony of cotton mealybugs (including all developmental stages of the mealybug) and kept in an incubator with the optimum temperature, 32°C (Zilaei et al., 2022), relative humidity of 65±10% and photoperiod of 10:14 hours (darkness: light) and after 12 hours the adults were separated, then the laid eggs were collected and stored in separate containers. At the same time with the emergence of first instar mosquito larva, an equal number (density 16, in order to bring the density to a density of prey in which at least 50% of the prey has been consumed, i.e. density 64) of the developmental stages of 1th, 2d, and 3d instars nymphs and adult females of mealybug were provided to each predator. After 24 hours, the predator was removed and the number of eaten pray from each developmental stage was recorded. This process was repeated for second and third instar larvae and adult male and female of D. manihoti with 20 repetitions. The data obtained from pray preference were analyzed using Manly's beta index (Manly, 1972). In order to evaluate the normality of the data, the Shapiro-Wilk test was used at the level of P=0.05 using SigmaPlot 12.0 software. Data analysis and comparison between treatments were performed using Tukey's test at P=0.05 level.

 

Results

The results of the pray preference of first, second and third instar larvae of D. manihoti by feeding on the first, second and third instar nymphs and adult stages of cotton mealybug at 32℃, relative humidity of 65 ± 10% and photoperiod 10:14 hours (darkness: lightness) using Manley's beta index showed the predator consumed all the developmental stages of the prey, but the amount of consumption of the developmental stages of the predator from the different developmental stages of pray were different.

Comparison of the average beta index for the first instar larva of D. manihoti showed that this developmental stage significantly prefers adult female to other developmental stages (P<0.006, df=3,76 H=12.57). Also the second instar larvae of D. manihoti significantly prefers first-instar nymph to other developmental stages and the lowest consumption of this stage was from the adult female mealybug with a significant difference from the nymphs of second and third instars (P<0.001, df=3,76 H=55.65). Comparison of the beta index in the third instar larvae of D. manihoti feeding on mealybug showed that the first instar nymphs were the preferred pray and the lowest consumption was from the adult mealybug (P<0.001, df=3,76 H=35/82).

 

Discussion

According to the results of this research, the predator’s first instar larvae preferred cotton mealybug adults over other developmental stages. The reason for this preference seems to be related to the low mobility of the adult mealybug. Since the amount of energy obtained from prey and the rate of prey capture is a function of prey size, larger prey may be preferred due to their higher nutritional value (Charnoff, 1976). Also second and third instars larvae of D. manihoti preferred mealybug nymphs more than other stages. The reason for this preference is probably related to the more mobility of older larvae and adult predator, so they choose smaller prey because the time to reach the prey is reduced and the availability and feeding of the prey is increased (Tinbergen, 1981). The results of this research showed that eating the most important developmental stage of the host, which can be transferred to other plants, increases the importance of this natural enemy. However, obtaining other behavioral information such as functional response, numerical response and its host preference in nature can play a role in making decisions about this biological agent.

بوشی، سارا. (1395). بررسی بیولوژی و تغییرات جمعیت شپشک آردآلود پنبه Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley) (Hem.: Pseudococcidae) و شناسایی دشمنان طبیعی آن روی ختمی‌چینی در شرایط طبیعی. پایان نامه کارشناسی ارشد حشره شناسی کشاورزی. اهواز: دانشگاه علوم کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی خوزستان، دانشکده کشاورزی. 
بوشی، سارا، رمضانی، لیلا، و ضرغامی، سارا. (1399). بیولوژی شپشک آردآلود پنبه Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley روی ختمی چینی Hibiscus rosa-sinenensis در فضای سبز دزفول، جنوب غرب ایران. گیاهپزشکی (مجله علمی کشاورزی)، 43(3)، 75-86.
جغتایی، محمود، صادقی، حسین و صادقی مجتبی. (1392). نخستین گزارش وجود سه گونه پشه‏ی گالزا (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)  در ایران. پژوهش های حفاظت گیاهان ایران، 28 (2)، 267-269.
سیف‏الهی، فاطمه. (1394). بیولوژی شپشک آردآلود پنبه و برخی از ویژگی‏های زیستی کفشدوزک شکارگر آن Hyperaspis polita  Weise. پایان نامه کارشناسی ارشد حشره شناسی کشاورزی. اهواز: دانشگاه شهید چمران، دانشکده کشاورزی.
صادقی نامقی، حسین، حسینی، مجتبی و جلالی مقدم، نجیبه‌. (1391). اولین گزارش Endaphis perfidus Keiffer (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) به‌عنوان پارازیتوئید داخلی شته انار (Aphis punicae Pass.) در ایران. پژوهش های حفاظت گیاهان ایران، 26(2)، 231-232.
عبداللهی آهی، غلامعلی، افشاری، علی، بنی عامری، ولی­الله، دادپور مغانلو، همت، آساده، غلامعلی و یزدانیان، محسن. (1391). واکنش تابعی کفشدوزک Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant (Col.: Coccinellidae) به شپشک آردآلود مرکبات Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hom.: Pseudococcidae) در شرایط آزمایشگاه. گیاهپزشکی (مجله علمی کشاورزی)، 29 (1)، 1-14.
قاری‏زاده­گلسفیدی، ابراهیم. (1381). امکان استفاده از کفشدوزک Cryptolaemus montrouzieri M. (Col.: Coccinellidae) در مبارزه بیولوژیک با بالشتک مرکبات Pulvinararia aurantii (Hom.: Coccidae). پایانامه‏ی کارشناسی ارشد حشره‏شناسی کشاورزی. اصفهان: دانشگاه صنعتی اصفهان، دانشکده کشاورزی.
قنبری، غلامحسین، قاجاریه، حمید، عالیچی، محمود و خردمند، کتایون. (1390). بررسی تغییرات جمعیت شپشک آردآلود جنوب Nipaecoccus viridis Newsted روی خرزهره و نارنج در منطقه شیراز و نقش عوامل موثر در کاهش جمعیت آن. گیاهپزشکی (مجله علمی کشاورزی)، 34(2)، 47-58.
متقی نیا، لیلا، حسن پور، مهدی و رزمجو، جبرائیل. (1397). مطالعه‌ی برخی ویژگی‌های رفتاری پشه‌ی شکارگر Aphidoletes aphidimyza Rondani روی شته‌ی جالیز، Aphis gossypii Glover در شرایط آزمایشگاهی. کنترل بیولوژیک آفات و بیماری های گیاهی، ۷ (۱)، 47-57.
مداحی، خدیجه، صحراگرد، احد و حسینی، رضا. (1391). ترجیح طعمه لارو پشه (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) Aphidoletes aphidimyza Rondani نسبت به شته های مومی کلم، جالیز و اقاقیا در شرایط آزمایشگاهی. تحققیات آفات گیاهی، ۲(۲)، 13-20.
مصدق، محمدسعید، وفایی، شبنم، ضرغامی، سارا، کچیلی، فرحان، فارسی، افروز، علیزاده، مریم سادات و رضایی نسترن. ( 1391). دشمنان طبیعی شپشک آردآلود (Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea:  Pseudococcidae) در خوزستان. خلاصه مقالات بیستمین کنگره گیاهپزشکی ایران، شیراز، 4-7 شهریور. ص 216.
ملکشی، سیدحسن، طلایی حسنلویی، رضا، محقق نیشابوری، جعفر و اللهیاری، حسین. (1396). میزان شکارگری و ترجیح سن شکارگر Nesidiocoris tenuis  درتغذیه از تخم بید آرد، kuehniella Ephestia و تخم بید گوجه فرنگی Tuta absoluta در آزمایشگاه. مهار زیستی در گیاه پزشکی، 5(1)، 31-43.
نخعی مدیح، صادق، رمضانی، لیلا، ضرغامی، سارا، و زندی سوهانی، نوشین. (1396). ویژگی‌های زیستی و پارامترهای جدول زندگی کفشدوزک Hyperaspis polita با تغذیه از شپشک‌های آرد‏آلود Phenacoccus solenopsis و Planococcus citri در شرایط آزمایشگاهی. آفات و بیماری‌های گیاهی، 85(1)، 45-56.
نخعی مدیح، صادق، رمضانی، لیلا، ضرغامی، سارا، و زندی سوهانی، نوشین. (1395). واکنش تابعی کفشدوزک Hyperaspis polita با تغذیه از شپشک آردآلود پنبه Phenacoccus solenopsis  . دانش گیاهپزشکی ایران، 47(2)، 303-311.
Abbas, M. S. T. )1999(. Studies on Dicrodiplosis manihoti Harris (Diptera, Ceccidomyiidae), a common predator of mealybug. An zeiger fur Schad lingskunde, pflanzenschutz, Umweltschutz, 72, 133-134.
Abdollahi Ahi, G. A., Afshari, A., Bani Ameri, W., Dadpour Mughanlou, H., Asadeh, G. & Yazdanian, M. (2012). Functional response of the ladybug Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant (Col.: Coccinellidae) to citrus mealybug Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hom.: Pseudococcidae) in laboratory conditions. Plant Protection, 29 (1), 1-14. (In Persian).
Afifi, A. I., El Arnouty, S. A., Attia, A. R. & El Metwally Abd Alla, A. (2010). Biological control of citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) using coccinellid predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 13(5), 216-222. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2010.216.222.
Akintola, A. J. & Ande, A.T. (2009). Pest status and ecology of five mealybugs (Family: Pseudococcidae) in Southern Guinea Savanna of Nigeria. Journal of Entomological Research, 33(1), 9-13.
 
Ali Khan, H. A., Sayyed, A. H., Akram, W., Raza, S. & Ali. M. (2012). Predatory potential of Chrysoperla carnea and Cryptolaemus montrouzieri larvae on different stages of the mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis: a threat to cotton in South Asia. Journal of Insect Science, 12(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1673/031.012.14701
Al-Rubeae, T. K., Ahmed, R. F. & Ali, S. T. (2011). The effect of egg densities of Nipaecoccus vastator (Maskell) on the development period and predation efficiency of the predator Dicrodiplosis manihoti Harris larvae. Al-Anbar Journal of Agricultural sciences, 9(2), 179-183.
Amarasekare, K. G., Mannion C. M. & Epsky, N. D. (2009). Efficiency and establishment of three introduced parasitoids of the mealybug Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Biological Control, 51, 91-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.07.005.
Bushi, S. (2015). Studying the biology and population changes of the cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley) (Hem.: Pseudococcidae) and identifying its natural enemies on Chinese hibiscus under natural conditions. Master's thesis in agricultural entomology. Ahvaz: Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University of Khuzestan. Faculty of Agriculture.
Bushi, S., Ramezani, L., & Zarghami, S. (2020). Biology of the cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley on Chinese Hibiscus rosa-sinenensis in green space of Dezful, southwest of Iran. Plant Protection (Journal of Agricultural Sciences), 43(3), 75-86. http://doi:10.22055/PPR.2020.16542.
Charnov, E. L. (1976). Optimal foraging, the marginal value theorem. Theoretical. Population Biology, 9,129–136.
Crawley, M. J. (1992). Natural enemies. The population biology of predators, parasites, and diseases. UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Fand, B. B., Gautam, R. D. & Suroshe, S. S. (2010). Comparative biology of four coccinellid predators of solenopsis mealybuy, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Journal of Biological Control, 24(1), 35-41.
Ghanbari, G., Ghajarieh, H., Aalichi, M. & Kheradmand, K. (2011). A Study of the Population Dynamics of Nipaecoccus viridis Newstead in Shiraz Region: Effective Factors on Population Decrease. Plant Protection (Scientific Journal of Agriculture), 34(2), 47-58. (In Persian).
Gharizadeh Golsefidi, E. (2002). The possibility of using the ladybug Cryptolaemus montrouzieri M. (Col: Coccinellidae) in the biological control of the Pulvinararia aurantii (Hom: Coccidae). Master's thesis in agricultural entomology. Isfahan University of Technology. Faculty of Agriculture.
Gheibi, M., Farahi, S. & Hesami, S. (2015). The biology of Dicrodiplosis manihoti Harris (Dip.: Cecidomyiidae) and its interactions with Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) (Hem: Pseudococcidae). Proceedings of the International Plant Protection Congress, Berlin, Germany. 24-27 August.  P. 512.
Godfrey, K., Daane, K., Bentley, W., Gill, R. & Malakar-Kuenen, R. (2002). Mealybugs in California vineyards. University of California Agricultural and Natural Recourse Publication 21612, Oakland, California.
Gross, S., Biraty, Y. & Gal, S. (2001). Using powdery and microcapsular prepares to decimate ant populations on citrus trees. Alon Hanotea, 55, 219–221.
Gullan, P. J. & Kosztarab, M. (1997). Adaptations in scale insects. Annual Review of Entomology, 42, 23-50.
Harris, K. M. (1981). Dicrodiplosis manihoti, sp. n. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), a predator on cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) in Africa. Annales de la Société entomologique de France, 17(3), 337-344. https://doi.org/10.1080/21686351.1981.12278287.
Havelka, J., & Zemek, R. (1988). Intraspecific variability of aphidophagous gall midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza (Rondani) (Dipt., Cecidomyiidae) and its importance for biological control of aphids:1. Ecological and morphological characteristics of populations. Journal of Applied Entomology, 105(1‐5), 280-288.
Hodek, I. & Honek, A. (1996). Ecology of Coccinellidae. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherland, 464 pp.
Hodgson, C. J., Abbas, G., Arif, M. J., Saeed, S. & Karar, H. (2008). Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae), an invasive mealybug damaging cotton in Pakistan and India, with a discussion on seasonal morphological variation. Zootaxa, 19(13): 1- 35. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.1913.1.1.
Izhevskey, S. S. & Orlinsky, A. D. (1988). Life history of the imported Scymnus (Nephus) reunion (Col.: Coccinellidae) predator of mealybugs. Entomophaga, 33(1), 101-114.
Joghataie, M. Sadeghi, H. & Sadeghi, M. (2014). The first report of three species of gall midge (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) in Iran. Iranian Plant Protection Research, 28 (2), 267-269. (In Persian).
Joyce, A. L., Hoddle, M. S., Bellows, T. S. & Gonzalez, D. (2001). Oviposition behaviour of Coccidoxenoides peregrinus, a parasitoid of Planococcus ficus. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 98, 49-57. http://doi:10.1023/A:1018727121282.  
Kaur, H & Virk, J. S. (2012). Feeding potential of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri against the mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis. Phytoparasitica, 40, 131-136.
Khalaf, J. & Abrumand, G. H. (1367). Preliminary investigation of southern mealybug and biological control against them in Fars province, Journal of Plant Pests and Diseases, 56 (1, 2): 93-99. (In Persion).
Khani, A., Ahmadi, F. & Ghadamyari, M. (2012). Side effects of imidacloprid and abamectin on the mealybug destroyer Cryptolaemus montrouzieri. Trakia Journal of Sciences, 10(3), 30-35.
Maddahi, Kh., Sahragard, A., & Hosseini, R. (2012). Prey species preference by Aphidoletes aphidimyza R. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) on Brevicoryne brassicae L., Aphis gossypii G. and Aphis craccivora K. (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in laboratory conditions. Plant Pest Research, 2(1), 13-20. (In Persian).
Malkeshi, S. H., Talaei-Hassanloui, R., Mohaghegh, J., & Allahyari, H. (2017). Predation rate and prey preference of Nesidiocoris tenuis on Ephestia kuehniella and Tuta absoluta eggs in laboratory. BioControl in Plant Protection, 5(1), 31-43. (In Persian).
Mani, M., Krishnamoorthy, A. & Shivaraju, C. (2011). Biological suppression of major mealybug species on horticultural crops in India. Journal of Horticultural Sciences, 6(2), 85-100.
Meyerdirk, D. E., French, J. V. & Hart, W. G. (1982). Effect of pesticide residues on the natural enemies of citrus mealybug. Environmental Entomology, 11, 134–136.
Milonas, P. G., Kontodimas, D. CH. & Martinou, A. F. (2011). A predator̕ s functional response: influence of prey species and size. Biological Control, 59, 141-146.
Mossadegh, M. S., Vafai, Sh., Zarghami, S., Kocheili, F., Farsi, A., Alizadeh, M. S. & Rezaei N. (2012). Natural enemies of the mealybug (Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley) (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) in Khuzestan. Summary of articles of the 20th Iranian Botanical Congress, Shiraz, 26-29 August, p. 216. (In Persian).
Mottaghinia, L., Hassanpour, M. & Razmjou, J. (2018). Study of some behavioral characteristics of the predatory gall midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza Rondani on the melon aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover in laboratory conditions. Biological control of pests and plant diseases, 7(1), 47-57. (In Persian). http://doi:10.22059/JBIOC.2018.232436.195.
Muthukrishnan, N., Manoharan, T., Thevan, P. S. T. & Anbu, S. (2005). Evaluation of buprofezin for the management of grape mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green). Journal of Entomological Research, 29, 339–344.
Nagrare, V.S., Kranthi, S., Biradar, V. K., Zade, N. N., Sangode, V., Kakde, G., Shukla, R. M., Shivare, D., Khadi, B. M. & Kranthi, R. (2009). Widespread infestation of the exotic mealybug species, phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), on cotton in India. Bulletin of Entomological Reasearch, 99, 537-541.
Nakhaei Madih, S., Ramezani, L., Zarghami, S., & Zandi Sohani, N. (2016). Functional response of different life stages of Hyperaspis polita feeding on cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis. Iranian Journal of Plant Protection Science, 47(2), 303-311. (In Persian). http://doi:10.22059/IJPPS.2017.208866.1006717.
Nakhaei Madih, S., Ramezani, L., Zarghami, S., & Zandi Sohani, N. (2017). Biological characteristics and life table parameters of ladybug Hyperaspis polita feeding on mealybugs Phenacoccus solenopsis and Planococcus citri in laboratory conditions. Plant Pests and Diseases, 85(1), 45-56. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22092/jaep.2017.107536.1121.
Nakhaei Madih, S. N., Ramezani, L., Zarghami, S., & Zandi-Sohani, N. (2021). Hyperaspis polita Weise functional response: effects of predator stages, prey species, and previous feeding experiences. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 41(4), 3055-3064. https://doi.org:10.1007/s42690-021-00498-4.
Sadeghi Namghi, H., Hosseini, M. & Jalali Moghadam, N. (2012). The first report of Endaphis Perfidus Keiffer (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) as an internal parasitoid of pomegranate aphid (Aphis Punicae Pass.) in Iran. Iranian Plant Protection Research, 26(2), 231-232. (In Persian).
Seyfollahi, F. (2014). Biology of cotton mealybug and some biological characteristics of its predatory ladybug Hyperaspis polita Weise. Master's thesis. Ahvaz: Shahid Chamran University. Faculty of Agriculture.
Opit, G. P., Roitberg, B., & Gillespie, D. R. (1997). The functional response and prey preference of Feltiella acarisuga (Vallot) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) for two of its prey: male and female two spotted spider mites, Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychiidae). The Canadian Entomologist, 129(2), 221-227.
Pickett, C. H., & Gilstrap, F. E. (1986). Natural enemies associated with spider mites (Acari: Tetranychidae) infesting corn in the High Plains region of Texas. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society, 524-536.
Ramezani, L., Torfi, E. T., Zarghami, S., & Rezai, N. (2021). Effect of temperature on development time and life table parameters of Nephus hiekei Fürsch, the important predator of Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 24(2), 266-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2021.01.017.
Saboorii, A., Hosseini, M. & Hatami, B. (2003). Preference of adults of Allothrombium pulvinum Ewing (Acari: Trombidiidae) for eggs of Planococcus citri (Risso) and Pulvinaria aurantii Cockerell on citrus leaves in the laboratory. Systematic and Applied Acarology, 8, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.11158/saa.8.1.5.
Shafqat, S., Munir, A., Mushtaq, A. & Kwon, Y. J. (2007). Insecticidal control of the mealybug Phenacoccus gossypiphilous (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), a new pest of cotton in Pakistan. Entomological Research, 37,76–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-5967.2007.00047.
Skuhrava, M., Skuhravy, V. & Elsayed, A. K. (2014). Gall midges (Diptera: Ceccidomyiidae) of Egypt: Annotated list and zoogeographical analysis. Acta Societatis Zoologicae Bohemicae, 78,241-268.
Tinbergen, J. M. (1981). Foraging decisions in starlings (Sturnus vulgaris L.). Ardea, 69(1), 1–67.
Wang, Y., Zhang, L. & Fu, S. (2012). Developmental duration and life table of the laboratory population of Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) fed on pumpkin at different temperatures. Acta Entomolgica Sinica, 55, 77-83.
Wells, M. L. & McPherson, R. M. (1999). Population dynamics of three coccinellids in flue-cured tobacco and functional response of Hippodamia convergens (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) feeding on tobacco aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae). Environmental Entomology, 28, 768 -773.
Zarghami, S., Kocheili, F., Mossadegh, M. S., Allahyari, H. & Rasekh, A. (2014). Prey preference and consumption capacity of Nephus arcuatus (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae): the influence of prey stage, prey size and feeding experience. Biocontrol Science and Technology, 24(9), 1062-1072. https://doi.org/10.1080/09583157.2014.919376.
Zilaei, M., Ramezani, L., & Zarghami, S. (2022). Effect of temperature on biological characteristics and life table parameters of Dicrodiplosis manihoti Harris on cotton mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 25(2), 101918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2022.101918.
Zhou, A., Lu, Y., Zeng, L., Xu, Y. & Liang, G. (2013). Effect of host plant on honeydew production of an invasive mealybug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Journal of Insect Behaviour, 26, 191-199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10905-012-9351-7.